International Journal of Law Research and Studies
The International Journal of Law Research and Studies (IJLRS) is an international refereed scientific journal specialized in law, the constitution, human rights, and analysis of cases and judgments. It is published by the publishing house “Vision for Scientific Research and Publishing” located in London, United Kingdom, which is managed by academics. Long scientific experience. The journal is interested in publishing scientific research that has originality, modernity, and scientific methodology, which constitute a useful scientific addition, whether in Arabic or English. The research published in the journal is subject to an arbitration process by a group of specialized academic professors from many countries of the world. The journal is also responsible for indexing and archiving Arab scientific and knowledge production in major international scientific databases. ISSN 3050-0044 (Online)
Vision for Scientific Research and Publishing
The Judicial Approach to Administrative Compensation Cases in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: An Applied Analytical Study of Published Administrative Judgments and Supreme Administrative Court Principles from 1440 to 1444 AH
This study examines the judicial approach to administrative compensation cases in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia through an applied analysis of published administrative judgments and Supreme Administrative Court principles from 1440 to 1444 AH. Its distinctive contribution lies in constructing a structured judicial corpus from all officially published collections and conducting a detailed purposive analysis of seventy-four full judgments through a uniform coding framework covering case outcome, basis of liability, type and proof of damage, causation, expert evidence, and assessment method. Supreme Administrative Court principles are used as an interpretive benchmark for evaluating the consistency of recurring trends. The study finds that Saudi administrative courts follow a cautious approach to liability, requiring proof of fault, direct damage, and causation, as well as reasoned assessment of material and moral damage and loss of profit. It also confirms the distinction between annulment and compensation claims and the prohibition of double recovery.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Law Research and Studies
Evidentiary Value of Electronic Means in Saudi Commercial Disputes: An Analytical Study in Light of the New Saudi Law of Evidence and Relevant Regulatory Frameworks
This study aimed to analyze and evaluate the legal framework governing electronic evidence in commercial disputes within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in light of recent legislative developments, particularly the Evidence Law and the Commercial Courts Law. The research problem revolves around assessing the adequacy and effectiveness of this legislative framework in addressing the practical, technical, and legal challenges posed by the contemporary digital environment. To achieve the study's objectives, the researcher adopted a descriptive-analytical approach by extrapolating and analyzing relevant statutory texts, in addition to examining recent judicial applications and principles issued by Saudi commercial courts to identify practical trends. The study concluded with a set of fundamental findings, most notably: the success of the Saudi legislator in establishing a comprehensive legislative infrastructure that enshrines the principles of "technological neutrality" and "functional equivalence." Official digital evidence was granted conclusive evidentiary weight equivalent to official written documents, while unofficial digital evidence was subjected to precise objective controls to ensure its reliability. The findings also demonstrated the commercial judiciary's settled practice of accepting digital evidence such as emails and instant messaging applications, with a pivotal reliance on the role of technical expertise in cases of dispute. Despite these positive developments, the study revealed complex practical challenges facing digital evidence, including: technological obsolescence, advanced encryption complexities, data storage in foreign cloud servers, a scarcity of national cadres specialized in digital forensics, and the high costs associated with technical expertise. Based on these findings, the study recommends the necessity of strengthening the regulatory framework for the digital expertise profession, developing mechanisms for international judicial cooperation to recover evidence, and adopting institutional strategies to ensure the sustainability of digital evidence. This will contribute to bridging the gap between legislative texts and practical application, thereby enhancing legal certainty and trust in the business and investment environment.
The Role of Governance in Combating Administrative Corruption in Lebanon
Governance plays a vital role in combating administrative corruption in Lebanon by promoting transparency, accountability, integrity, and the rule of law. It provides institutional frameworks that support effective decision-making, performance evaluation, and public oversight, thereby strengthening public trust and improving the efficiency of public administration. Nevertheless, the implementation of governance principles continues to face significant challenges due to Lebanon’s complex political and administrative environment. This study examines the role of governance in combating administrative corruption in Lebanon and identifies the mechanisms required to enhance integrity and transparency within public institutions. The findings reveal that effective governance improves institutional performance by establishing clear organizational structures, reinforcing accountability, and ensuring transparent administrative processes, enabling institutions to achieve their objectives more efficiently. The study concludes that strengthening governance is essential for reducing administrative corruption and promoting sustainable institutional reform. It recommends reinforcing the legal framework, empowering independent oversight bodies, developing effective performance evaluation systems, and increasing public awareness and community participation to support transparency, accountability, and good governance.
Constitutional Review of Regulations and Bylaws in the Saudi Legal System
This study aims to highlight the mechanisms of “Constitutional Review of Regulations and Bylaws in the Saudi Legal System,” in light of the rapid legislative and regulatory renaissance witnessed by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under Vision 2030. The problem of the study stems from the need to root and identify the entities and institutions tasked with verifying the compatibility of regulations (laws) and subsidiary bylaws with the supreme principles established in the Basic Law of Governance, especially in the absence of a specialized and independent constitutional court. The study adopted an analytical-inductive approach to the texts of the Basic Law of Governance and relevant judicial systems, while tracking the judicial applications issued by the Board of Grievances (Administrative Judiciary) and ordinary courts. The study reached several findings, most notably: that constitutional review in the Kingdom finds its solid ground in the supremacy of Sharia and regulatory rules, and that the administrative judiciary plays an active and decisive role in reviewing the constitutionality and legality of bylaws and executive decisions through the review of abstention or annulment, while regulations are subject to prior and subsequent review mechanisms by the regulatory authority. The study recommends the importance of developing regulatory frameworks and unifying the judicial reference for ruling on pleas of unconstitutionality to enhance the efficiency of the legislative structure.
The Impact of Changing Electoral Systems on Women’s Political Representation in Iraq: An Analytical Study in Light of the 2005 Constitution
The issue of women's political representation in Iraq is no longer confined to the absence of constitutional provisions, but rather lies in the instability of the governing "electoral system." This study aims to measure the impact of legislative variables (changing electoral laws) on the effectiveness of women's participation, by analyzing the dialectical relationship between "constitutional stability" represented by the Quota (Article 49) and "legislative turbulence" represented by the fluctuation of laws between the Proportional Representation system (Sainte-Laguë) and the Multi-District system. The research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach supported by a statistical reading of election outcomes (2010-2021) and a review of the historical development of political rights. The study concludes that there is a direct correlation between the electoral system type and the quality of female representation; while the "Sainte-Laguë" system entrenched women's subordination to party leaders (the Proxy MP phenomenon), the "Multi-District" system in the 2021 elections caused a qualitative leap, enabling 57 women to win by their own votes, exceeding the constitutional quota ceiling. The research also discusses the structural challenges (political violence, funding, patriarchal dominance) facing women, offering a forward-looking vision to evolve the Quota from a "protection" mechanism into a "competition" base.
Ruqayya Maytham Abdul-Hussein Mohammed Redha
The regulatory framework for protecting personal data in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its impact on the obligations of technical authorities
This study aimed to analyze the legal framework for personal data protection in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, established by Royal Decree No. (M/19) dated 9/2/1443 AH and amended by Royal Decree No. (M/148) dated 5/9/1444 AH, focusing on its legal and operational impact on the obligations of data controllers and processors (technical entities), through a comparative study with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The study adopted the analytical-comparative methodology, examining the legislative texts of the Law, its Executive Regulations, and the Regulation on Personal Data Transfer Outside the Kingdom, comparing them with the corresponding provisions in the GDPR, drawing upon contemporary legal scholarship and empirical studies. The research was organized into two main chapters: the general provisions of the Law (conceptual framework, scope of application, governing principles, and data subject rights), and the obligations of technical entities (legal and organizational, technical and security, cross-border transfer controls, and the liability and criminal protection regime). The study concluded with several key findings, most notably: the Saudi Law represents a qualitative legislative leap aligned with Saudi Vision 2030; the Saudi legislator adopted an expanded conception of sensitive data that exceeds its European counterpart in certain aspects; the Law's extraterritorial application reinforces the principle of digital sovereignty; and the Saudi sanctions regime emphasizes criminal penalties including imprisonment, contrary to the GDPR which prioritizes administrative sanctions with substantial monetary fines. The study also identified a persistent gap between the legislative text and practical implementation, particularly regarding compliance of Saudi websites and digital applications with transparency and privacy-by-design requirements. The study recommended the issuance of specialized sectoral guidelines by the Saudi Data and Artificial Intelligence Authority (SDAIA), activating ex-post supervision of technical entities, publishing a list of countries with adequate protection modeled on the European adequacy decisions, developing specialized judicial and prosecutorial capacities, strengthening safeguards for the independence of the Data Protection Officer (DPO), and establishing a specialized regulatory framework for data processing in the context of artificial intelligence technologies.
The Proliferation of False Reporting and the Fabrication of Charges in Post-Occupation
One of the critical negative phenomena plaguing contemporary societies is the offense of false reporting. Its detrimental impact is not merely confined to the perpetrator and the victim; rather, it extends to the broader community, undermining its social, moral, and religious foundations. This phenomenon has notably proliferated following the 2003 occupation of Iraq. This escalation has prompted the researcher to address this hazardous issue by examining the conceptual framework of the crime of false reporting, its legal significance, and its distinction from other analogous legal concepts. Furthermore, this study delineates the requisite criminal intent and the rationale underlying its criminalization. The researcher also analyzes the legal characterization (qualification) of the offense, its constituent elements, and its various forms and motives. Ultimately, the study concludes with a final section presenting key findings and practical recommendations.
Digital Chaos and the Exploitation of Low-Quality Content in the Digital Environment
This study examines the phenomenon of digital chaos and the exploitation of low-quality content in the digital environment in light of the widespread use of social media platforms and their growing influence on patterns of communication and media production. The research aims to analyze the legal basis for criminalizing the exploitation of such content and to evaluate the ability of criminal law to address this phenomenon while maintaining a balance between protecting public order and safeguarding freedom of expression. The study also seeks to identify the social and economic factors that contribute to the spread of low-quality content across digital platforms and to clarify the legal challenges associated with establishing a clear legal standard for this concept in contemporary legislation, particularly as many legal systems rely on broad notions such as public order and public morality. The study adopts the analytical method to examine legal texts and jurisprudential writings related to the regulation of digital content, in addition to the descriptive-analytical method to interpret the social phenomenon associated with the spread of low-quality content in the digital environment. The research is based on a range of legal sources, scholarly writings, and previous studies addressing the regulation of digital content and legal responsibility arising from the use of social media platforms. The study concludes that the exploitation of low-quality content is closely linked to several social and economic factors, most notably the attention economy, the pursuit of digital fame, and audience interaction within digital platforms. The findings also indicate that most legal systems do not adopt a precise legal definition of low-quality content but rather address it within broader legal concepts, which leaves considerable room for judicial discretion. The scientific value of this study lies in providing a legal analysis that integrates the conceptual, social, and criminal dimensions of the phenomenon, while emphasizing the importance of adopting a comprehensive approach that combines legal regulation, public awareness, and enhanced responsibility of digital platforms in managing published content.
International Efforts to Protect Cultural Property under International Humanitarian Law
This research explores "The Protection of Cultural Property under International Humanitarian Law". Its significance lies in addressing the systematic destruction of human heritage and bridging the gap between legal texts and field realities. The study aims to consolidate international protection rules, evaluate the role of specialized organizations, and clarify the mechanisms of criminal accountability for violations. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, the researcher divided the study into four sections covering the concepts of International Humanitarian Law, cultural property, protection mechanisms, and the liability arising from attacks. The research concluded that heritage protection has become a peremptory international norm, despite political obstacles hindering judicial prosecution. The study recommended aligning national legislation with international conventions and activating universal jurisdiction to ensure no impunity and to preserve human memory.
Burden of Proof under the Saudi Companies Law
This study examines the burden of proof under the Saudi Companies Law and how the legislator allocates it in certain corporate disputes. The introductory section defines the burden of proof and highlights the particular nature of corporate disputes. The study addresses three main instances. First, concerning the civil liability of auditors under Article (20/7), where multiple auditors are jointly liable, the burden shifts to the auditor to prove non-participation in the fault giving rise to liability. Second, under Article (31), in claims alleging that a director or board member failed to perform their duties or act in good faith regarding decisions taken or voted upon, the burden of proof rests on the claimant alleging the breach. Third, under Articles (28) and (71), the burden lies on directors or dissenting members to prove their objection to unlawful resolutions, as well as on absent members to establish lack of knowledge of the decision or inability to object upon becoming aware of it. The study concludes that the Saudi regulator adopts a flexible approach, distributing the burden of proof according to the parties’ positions and the nature of each dispute.
Abdulrahman Mohammed Abdulaziz Al-Humaid
The Legal Status of Platform Workers in Light of the Saudi Labor Law: An Analytical Study
This study addresses the legal status of workers on digital platforms in light of the Saudi Labor Law, amid the emergence of a novel form of work driven by the digital transformation and based on technological intermediation between service providers and beneficiaries, and the difficulty this raises in characterizing the relationship between the worker and the platform and the extent of its subjection to the provisions of the Labor Law. The study adopts the analytical approach in examining the relevant statutory texts; it clarifies the nature, characteristics, and types of digital platforms, then analyzes the statutory elements of the work relationship (natural personhood, work, wage, and subordination) and the extent of their applicability to platform workers, focusing on subordination as the decisive criterion and the novel form it has assumed in the digital environment, known as "electronic subordination." The study concludes that Article Two of the Labor Law—through its flexible wording "even if away from the employer's supervision"—encompasses this form, and that the characterization of the worker–platform relationship in location-based platforms is that of a subordinate employment relationship governed by the Law. It then sets out the effects of this characterization in terms of the rights and obligations of the three parties to the relationship: the worker, the platform as the employer, and the beneficiary. The study recommends addressing the legislative gap by amending the Labor Law and issuing dedicated regulations that clarify the legal status of these workers.
The Limits of the Client’s Will in Establishing a Legal Power of Attorney Without the Lawyer’s Acceptance: An Analytical Study of Omani Legislation and Practice in Comparison with Select Legislative Systems
The judicial system in the Sultanate of Oman has undergone rapid technical transformations in recent years, most notably the adoption of the "Tawtheeq" electronic system, which allows the client to issue a legal power of attorney (POA) without the lawyer's prior knowledge or explicit acceptance at the moment of creation. This study aims to clarify the legal regulation of the lawyer's POA in Omani legislation and its adequacy in governing the relationship between the two parties, as well as resolving the legal issues arising from POAs issued by unilateral will. The study addresses the legal nature of the POA in the Civil Transactions Law and the professional specificity of the legal profession, highlighting emerging legal and ethical challenges—particularly the issue of "conflict of interest" and the impact of absent consent on the validity of judicial procedures. The study adopts descriptive, analytical, and comparative methodologies by reviewing the experiences of Kuwait, Bahrain, and Malaysia. The study concluded that the client's unilateral issuance of a POA represents a fundamental flaw in the principle of contractual consent. It recommended the necessity of developing electronic systems to include immediate notifications to lawyers and requiring the client to formally notify the lawyer of the POA to ensure the meeting of wills and protect the independence of the legal profession.
Civil liability provisions for torts of board members in a joint-stock company
The joint-stock company is the ideal model for capital companies and has an integrated organization of a collective nature. It occupies a distinguished position in the economic fabric and contributes to revitalizing economic activity and development. Commercial companies represent the basic sector of any country's economy, as they are one of the components of economic activity. Joint-stock companies have witnessed remarkable development as a result of the growth in the volume of trade exchange. yueabirun ean aradatihim, wayuafiq ealayhim almusahimun wayunazimuha alqanun. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor and control the bodies entrusted with managing the company. The responsibility of the shareholders is limited, and they are responsible for the company’s debts up to the nominal value of the shares. In addition, the members of the board Based on the foregoing, there are two theories that define the legal status of board members: contract and law. The first considers board members to be bound to the company by an agency contract. The legal theory, however, considers board members to be bound by a legal relationship as a body or member of the company, not as its agent. Therefore, the liability of board members is divided between civil (contractual) liability in the event of breach of a contractual obligation (the company's articles of association), and tortious liability in the event of breach of a legal obligation (the company law) that governs it. This liability arises if a causal link exists between the board members' error and the harm suffered by the company, society, shareholders, and third parties.of directors express their will, and the shareholders approve them, and it is regulated by law. Furthermore, the Iraqi Companies Law No. 21 of 1997 (as amended) imposes strict civil liability on members of the boards of directors of joint-stock companies, holding them jointly liable to the company, shareholders, and third parties for management errors that violate the law or the company's bylaws. Members are obligated to exercise the care of a "reasonable person" in managing the company's interests. In fact, this company is managed by three bodies: the General Assembly, the Board of Directors, and the Auditors. The Board of Directors is considered the brains behind the company's management and serves as the compass guiding the company towards prosperity and excellence. It is the apex of the administrative pyramid within the company. Despite the existence of the General Assembly, which manages the company and has supreme authority and legal sovereignty, the Iraqi legislator, like other comparative laws, has paid attention to the Board of Directors, outlining a set of functions that the company's management must undertake through its Board of Directors, which is considered the embodiment of the company. It also manages and supervises the company and sets its general policy.
Managing commonly owned property according to the civil transactions system: A comparative study
The study aims to identify the statutory and legal foundations governing the management of commonly owned property, determine the scope of co-owners’ powers and rights, and examine the role of the judiciary in resolving disputes arising from such management. The study employs a descriptive, inductive, and analytical approach. The descriptive approach is employed to describe private ownership and common ownership, while the inductive approach is used to collect and examine the various aspects related to the research topic and review the relevant literature and discussions. The analytical approach is applied through gathering legal facts and information, comparing them, and extracting the most significant rules and legal principles associated with the subject in order to assess their consistency with, or deviation from, general legal principles. This methodology serves the objectives of the study by identifying areas of convergence and divergence through the examination, analysis, and comparison of the legal provisions governing common ownership in both jurisdictions, while linking them to relevant Islamic jurisprudential opinions and established legal principles, with reference to practical applications whenever possible. The study addresses the concept of common ownership from linguistic, juristic, and legal perspectives, related terminology, the historical development of property rights, the sources of common ownership, the concept and characteristics of commonly owned property, the right of disposition therein, restrictions on its management, and the Shariah ruling concerning real rights in commonly owned property. It also examines the different forms of management of common property, namely ordinary management, extraordinary management, and preservation management. The first chapter discusses the provisions governing the management of commonly owned property under Saudi and UAE law, including the voting thresholds required for decisions relating to ordinary management, extraordinary management, and preservation management, as well as the mechanisms governing each form of management. The second chapter provides a comparative analytical study of the relevant provisions in both legal systems, highlighting points of similarity and difference and assessing the adequacy of these provisions in balancing the interests of co-owners and protecting their rights. This study concludes that both the Saudi Civil Transactions Law and the UAE Civil Transactions Law adopt the principle of binding majority decisions based on the value of ownership shares in matters of ordinary management, while requiring a qualified majority of three-quarters of the common property for decisions that exceed the scope of ordinary management. Both systems also recognize the judiciary as a fundamental safeguard for protecting the rights of dissenting co-owners. The study further finds that UAE law provides a special regulatory framework for family ownership, whereas the Saudi system adopts a more general approach while maintaining a clear classification of management categories. This study recommends strengthening the procedural regulation of common property management, more precisely defining the powers and responsibilities of the manager, and unifying certain legal procedures to reduce disputes, promote legal certainty, and ensure the optimal utilization of commonly owned property.
Statutory Protection of Seasonal Workers under Saudi Labor Law
This study examines and evaluates the regulatory protection system established for workers under seasonal employment contracts within the Saudi Labor Law, utilizing the Hajj sector as a practical model. The research problem stems from the premise that seasonal workers occupy a weaker contractual position due to legal subordination and the brief duration of the season, creating a practical vulnerability that employers may exploit to impose exceptional or arbitrary clauses that disrupt contractual balance. Employing a legal analytical methodology, the study reviews the statutory provisions and ministerial resolutions governing seasonal activities. The study yields a fundamental finding: the parties' autonomy in seasonal contracts is strictly bound by mandatory protective rules that completely invalidate any detraction from workers' rights. Furthermore, this protection is reinforced through rigorous statutory oversight, judicial authority to strike down unfair clauses, and procedural safeguards that secure the worker's rights until the termination of the contractual relationship. Consequently, the study recommends enhancing this protection by automating seasonal contracts via digital platforms, embedding standardized mandatory terms that proactively prevent any violation of the worker's minimum legal guarantees.
Controls of Employee Performance Appraisal under the Saudi Labor Law: An Analytical Study
This analytical study aimed to contextualize the legal concept of employee performance appraisal under the Saudi Labor Law, examining the formal and substantive constraints governing the employer’s exercise of this authority. The research problem highlights the practical gap resulting from the absence of precise statutory standards, which allows performance reports to be leveraged arbitrarily to deprive workers of accrued rights or unlawfully terminate employment. The study primarily adopted an analytical methodology, supplemented by a descriptive approach where necessary, to examine relevant statutory texts and unified model bylaws. The study yielded several key findings: performance appraisal constitutes a practical exercise of legal subordination; and labor law strictly prohibits utilizing negative appraisals to unilaterally modify basic wages or fixed allowances. Furthermore, the study revealed the inefficiency of internal grievance mechanisms and amicable settlement procedures due to their lack of binding enforcement power, shifting a heavy burden onto the employee to prove the employer's hidden malicious intent before labor courts. The study recommended strengthening the supervisory oversight of the Ministry of Human Resources when approving internal bylaws, and issuing a unified guiding regulation defining mandatory procedural pathways and timeframes for improving low-performing employees' skills prior to contract termination.
Protection of Workers During Disasters: A Study in Light of the Saudi Labor Law
This study examines the protection of workers during disasters in light of the Saudi legal system, particularly in view of the increasing forms of disasters worldwide and the diversity of their effects. The research problem lies in assessing the adequacy of the protection afforded by the Saudi legal system to workers in disaster situations, in terms of the preventive measures required before a disaster occurs, the procedures necessary during its occurrence, and the safeguards granted to workers after it has occurred, particularly with regard to the continuity of their rights and compensation for any harm they may sustain. The study adopts the analytical method to examine the relevant provisions of the Saudi Labor Law and its regulations, particularly the Occupational Safety and Health Management Regulation, in addition to the Social Insurance Law and the laws and regulations related to safety requirements. It also draws on the descriptive method in presenting the concept of disasters, their forms, and their effects on workers and the employment relationship. The study reached several findings, most notably that the protection of workers during disasters is not governed by a standalone legal framework, but is derived from various provisions scattered across the Labor Law and its regulations, the Social Insurance Law, and the laws and regulations related to safety requirements. The study also concluded that this protection is based on interconnected stages, beginning with risk prevention before the occurrence of a disaster, followed by the protection of workers’ safety and rights during the disaster, and ending with subsequent protection through the prescribed compensation where the injury arising from the disaster is connected to the employment relationship and falls within the scope of work injuries. The study further concluded with several recommendations, most notably that the Saudi regulator should issue a regulation or regulatory provisions on occupational safety and health management for facilities employing fewer than fifty workers, in order to ensure a minimum level of preventive measures and emergency plans appropriate to the nature of such facilities.
Regulation of Remote Workers’ Rights under the Saudi Legal System: An Analytical Study
This study aimed to examine the legal regulation of the rights and obligations of employees in remote work contracts by identifying the concept, characteristics, and conditions of remote work contracts, as well as the legal implications related to employees’ rights and obligations. The study adopted the analytical approach through analyzing labor laws, regulations, and procedural and guidance manuals related to remote work. The study concluded that Ministerial Decision No. (120453) defines remote work as the performance of job duties outside the traditional workplace through the use of communication and information technology while maintaining the employment relationship. The study recommended that the Saudi regulator establish a more detailed and independent legal framework for remote work contracts that addresses the specific nature of this type of work.
Statutory Protection of Maritime Worker against Economic and Occupational Risks: An Analytical Study
This study examines the statutory protection afforded to maritime workers against economic and occupational risks under the Saudi legal system, in light of the Saudi Labor Law, the Commercial Maritime Law, and the Regulation of Maritime Employment Contracts. Its importance stems from the nature of maritime work, which differs from ordinary work in the workplace, navigation conditions, subordination to the operator and master, and the exceptional risks that may arise during a voyage and affect the employment relationship. The study aims to clarify the concept and characteristics of the maritime employment contract, identify the main risks faced by maritime workers, examine their legal effects, and assess the adequacy of the statutory protections established for them. The study adopts an analytical approach by examining the legal provisions governing maritime employment contracts and evaluating their suitability to the nature of maritime work. It concludes that the maritime employment contract has a special nature that justifies regulating it through provisions distinct from ordinary employment contracts. It also finds that maritime workers may face economic risks, such as voyage cancellation and suspension of navigation, as well as occupational risks related to the maritime environment, which may result in injuries, occupational diseases, or psychological and physical effects. The study further concludes that Saudi law provides safeguards, including wage protection, repatriation expenses, accommodation, medical care, training, compensation, and insurance for occupational injuries. Nevertheless, statutory protection still requires further detail where navigation is suspended for a long period, the voyage cannot be completed, or the seafarer cannot be repatriated.
Protection of minority shareholders in the joint stock companies according to Saudi companies' law
This study aimed to identify the means of protecting minority shareholders in joint-stock companies under the Saudi legal system by clarifying the concept of minority shareholders, identifying forms of majority abuse, and analyzing the legal, judicial, and regulatory mechanisms established to protect this category. The study problem centered on identifying the means of protecting minority shareholders from majority abuse under the Saudi legal system. The study adopted the descriptive-analytical approach through examining and analyzing the relevant legal provisions related to the subject matter and clarifying the scope of their application. The study reached several findings, most notably that the Saudi legislator has not provided an explicit definition of minority shareholders, rather, the concept is inferred from legal provisions. The study also found that the protection of minority shareholders in the Saudi legal system is based on an integrated framework combining legal, judicial, and regulatory mechanisms. Furthermore, investment awareness was identified as an important preventive dimension in protecting shareholders and enhancing their awareness of their rights and obligations. Based on the findings, the study presented several recommendations, the most significant of which are the necessity of establishing a legal definition for minority shareholders that precisely determines their legal scope, reconsider the first paragraph of Article (99) of the Companies Law to expand the scope of nullity claims to include cases of majority abuse, and establish clearer regulations regarding shareholders' right to access information, including enabling shareholders to resort to the judiciary when they are unjustifiably denied this right without legal grounds.
The Legal Regulation of Preventing Discrimination and Harassment in the Workplace: An Analytical Study
This research examines the legal regulation of preventing discrimination and harassment in the workplace within the Saudi legal system. It discusses the concept of discrimination, the scope of its prohibition, and its various forms, particularly discrimination based on gender and disability. The study also highlights the extent of the Saudi legislator’s commitment to promoting the principles of equality and equal opportunities throughout all stages of the employment relationship, beginning with job advertisements and recruitment, continuing during employment, and extending to the termination of the employment relationship. The research further addresses the concept of workplace harassment and its different forms, whether verbal, non-verbal, or physical, while clarifying the legal and regulatory measures established by the Saudi legal system to combat harassment and behavioral misconduct in the workplace. The study concludes that the Saudi legislator has adopted an integrated preventive and punitive approach aimed at protecting the dignity of employees and promoting a safe work environment based on justice, respect, and equality.
The philosophical foundations of the judicial reasoning method in the mental structure of the administrative judge
This research addresses the philosophical framework of judicial reasoning within the cognitive structure of the administrative judge, conceptualizing it as a complex intellectual process that extends beyond the literal application of legal rules toward the construction of a judicial discourse grounded in interpretation, justification, and the reconfiguration of facts in light of the principle of legality. The study is based on a central problem concerning the philosophical foundations governing the formation of administrative judicial reasoning, and the extent to which formal logic intersects with purposive and functional interpretative reasoning in shaping judicial conviction. The research adopts an analytical–philosophical methodology aimed at deconstructing the cognitive structure of the judge’s reasoning process by linking classical Aristotelian deductive logic with modern developments in legal philosophy that emphasize the role of context, interpretation, and legislative purpose. It further examines the judicial mindset as an evolving cognitive system in which legal norms interact with judicial experience and factual assessment, resulting in a reasoned and coherent judicial decision. The study concludes that judicial reasoning in administrative adjudication is no longer a mechanical application of legal rules, but rather a constructive process that reconfigures the relationship between legal norms and factual reality within a balance between legality and administrative justice. It further highlights legal philosophy as the intellectual foundation that explains the evolution of judicial justification techniques and delineates the boundaries of judicial discretion.
Mechanisms for International Criminal Cooperation in Combating Money Laundering
This research examines the mechanisms of international criminal cooperation in combating the crime of money laundering as one of the most serious forms of transnational organized crime posing a direct threat to the economic and security stability of states. The study focuses on the international nature of money laundering and the international legislative framework established to combat it, particularly through the Vienna and Palermo Conventions, as well as the recommendations issued by the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). The research also addresses the principal forms of international criminal cooperation in combating money laundering crimes, including judicial delegation, extradition, enforcement of foreign criminal judgments, and controlled delivery operations, while clarifying the position of the Iraqi legislator under the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Law No. (39) of 2015. The study concludes that the effectiveness of combating money laundering depends largely on the efficiency of international cooperation and information exchange among states, in addition to the continuous development of domestic legislation in line with modern international standards aimed at confronting the evolving methods employed by organized criminal groups.
Enforcement of Foreign Criminal Judgments
The Legal Liability of the Maritime Carrier and the Economic Consequences of Goods Remaining at the Aden Port Container Terminal
Updating the Yemeni maritime legislation in line with the Hamburg Rules and the Rotterdam Rules has become an urgent necessity to harmonize the national framework with contemporary international standards, and to clearly regulate the point at which risk and liability transfer between the carrier, the consignee, and the port operator. Introducing precise definitions for delay-related provisions and explicit regulations for abandoned cargo (including notification periods, fair modes of disposition, and safeguarding the port’s financial entitlements), alongside transparent fee structures for delay penalties and effective alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, would significantly reduce conflicts related to cargo retention in port yards, facilitate fair and prompt settlement of maritime disputes, minimize storage costs, and enhance the efficiency and competitiveness of Aden Port within regional supply chains. This research seeks to propose a set of practical measures enabling the port to take action regarding abandoned cargo after a defined period, as well as coordination and procedural improvements that reduce clearance time and enhance information flow among stakeholders. Achieving these objectives not only safeguards the rights of the port, cargo owners, and carriers, but also strengthens the efficiency of the logistics system and reinforces Aden Port’s position as a competitive regional hub capable of responding to the requirements of modern maritime trade. The study found that Yemeni maritime law has drawn upon the principles of several international laws and conventions regulating maritime transport activities. However, the legislation still requires modernization to keep pace with the rapid developments in international legal systems, particularly those associated with technological advances and automation, which have created a new operational reality that must be reflected in the language and provisions of the law. The study recommends expanding the scope of the current Yemeni port regulations to comprehensively address all operational and service-related aspects of port activities, both navigational and logistical/administrative. It also calls for a thorough review and update of Yemeni maritime law to incorporate international rules that reflect the accelerating developments in maritime transport and to provide practical solutions for the persistent issue of abandoned and long-stored cargo that consignees have failed to clear.
The Relationship Between Protected Areas and the International Union for Conservation of Nature: Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms
This study examines the role of international organizations and implementation mechanisms in biodiversity protection, focusing on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as a leading actor in the development of international environmental standards. The study aims to explain how IUCN has contributed to the development of classification systems for threatened species, protected areas, and ecosystems, and to clarify how these standards support the implementation of international conservation obligations. The study also analyzes monitoring and evaluation mechanisms within the international environmental system—particularly Conferences of the Parties and periodic national reports—and assesses their effectiveness in measuring progress toward global biodiversity goals under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Relying on the descriptive-analytical method through the examination of official reports and technical guidelines, the study concludes that IUCN plays a central normative role in global environmental governance.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Digital diplomacy and its role in reshaping contemporary international relations
This study aimed to shed light on the concept of digital diplomacy and demonstrate its pivotal role in reshaping the features of contemporary international relations, in light of the massive technological boom the world witnessed between (2000-2025). The study sought to address a primary problem concerning how digital platforms and technological tools affect traditional foreign policy instruments and the extent of their contribution to enhancing the soft power of states. To achieve the study's objectives, the researcher employed a descriptive-analytical approach to review and analyze contemporary political literature and previous studies. The study reached several key results, most notably: digital diplomacy has become a strategic tool that transcends simple communication to become a means for crisis management and immediate international image-building. Furthermore, the study revealed that the digital transformation has expanded the circle of international actors to include non-state actors, while giving rise to new security and sovereign challenges related to cybersecurity and disinformation. The study concluded with recommendations emphasizing the necessity of strengthening the digital infrastructure of diplomatic institutions and developing international legal frameworks to regulate diplomatic work in cyberspace, especially with the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies into political decision-making.
Legal Protection Against Algorithmic Bias in Artificial Intelligence Systems Used in Recruitment and Employment: An Analytical Study
Bias in artificial intelligence systems used in recruitment and employment is considered one of the most significant modern legal issues due to its impact on the principle of equality in employment opportunities. These systems rely on analyzing applicants’ data and making decisions that may favor certain groups or exclude others based on biased data or criteria, despite their apparent technical neutrality. Therefore, this research aims to examine the concept of bias in artificial intelligence systems used in recruitment and employment, identify its causes and forms, and clarify the legal protection established to address it. The research adopts the analytical approach through studying and analyzing the relevant legal provisions, particularly the provisions of the Saudi Labor Law related to equality and non-discrimination, as well as the relevant provisions of the Personal Data Protection Law, in order to assess the adequacy of the legal protection established to address algorithmic bias in recruitment and employment procedures. Finally, the research concludes that the rules of Saudi Labor Law constitute an important basis for protecting individuals from bias in artificial intelligence systems used in recruitment and employment. The Personal Data Protection Law also contributes to strengthening such protection. However, the complex technical nature of these systems, and the difficulties associated with proving algorithmic bias, particularly those related to transparency and explainability, require the development of more effective legal mechanisms to enhance oversight over such systems and reduce discrimination.
The International Legal Framework of Forced Displacement
This research examines the international legal framework of forced displacement as one of the most serious violations affecting human dignity, stability, and the right of individuals to remain in their original homeland. It explores the development of this concept from its linguistic and historical meaning to its legal characterization under the rules of international humanitarian law and international criminal law. The study addresses the nature of forced displacement in terms of its linguistic and terminological definition, its roots in ancient civilizations, and the position of Islamic law toward it, before tracing its evolution during the codification of international humanitarian law. It also clarifies the treaty-based and judicial foundations for the criminalization of forced displacement and analyzes its various legal forms as a crime against humanity, a war crime, and, in certain cases, an act that may amount to genocide when accompanied by the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. The research concludes that the international prohibition of forced displacement is no longer merely a moral principle or a general humanitarian norm, but has become a binding legal rule that gives rise to international accountability. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of this protection continues to face challenges related to enforcement, evidentiary issues, and selectivity in prosecution. Accordingly, the study emphasizes the importance of strengthening international accountability mechanisms and developing preventive protection measures for civilians in order to limit this crime and safeguard the fundamental rights of civilian populations.
Legal Issues Facing the Termination of Employment Contracts in the Digital Work Environment: A Descriptive and Analytical Study
This study sheds light on the legal challenges confronting the termination of employment contracts within the digital environment, amid the profound digital transformation and the emergence of remote work patterns. The core problem lies in the difficulties encountered when applying the traditional substantive rules outlined in Saudi labor law to virtual work settings, particularly regarding the termination of the contractual relationship between the worker and the employer, and the challenges in proving worker negligence. The study aims to elucidate the concept of digital contract termination and outline the position of Saudi law concerning such contracts. Employing the descriptive and analytical methodologies, the study reviews and analyzes relevant statutory provisions. It is structured into two main sections: the first addresses the nature of digital contract termination and the legal validity of electronic notification methods, while highlighting the effective role of governmental platforms—such as the Qiwa platform—in documenting procedures and mitigating disputes. The second section examines practical challenges in termination, specifically the difficulty in distinguishing intentional negligence from technical malfunctions. The study concludes that applying traditional provisions of Saudi labor law to remote employment contracts generates challenges necessitating regulatory intervention. Despite the successes of digital platforms, it recommends that Saudi legislative authorities address substantive gaps by establishing precise standards across various aspects of the digital employment contract, thereby ensuring equitable balance, workplace stability, and the protection of both parties' rights.
Legal Protection of Employees’ Personal Data under the Saudi Legal Framework
This study aimed to elucidate the legal protection afforded to employees’ personal data under the Saudi legal framework by clarifying the concept of an employee’s personal data and the employee’s rights in relation thereto, and then by examining the standards and controls governing the collection and processing of such data, the most salient forms of infringement thereof, and the legal consequences arising from such infringement. The study adopted the analytical method through an examination of the relevant provisions of the Saudi Labor Law and the Personal Data Protection Law (PDPL). The study concluded that the regulator has succeeded in striking a balance between the employer’s right to manage its establishment and to access the data of its employees, on the one hand, and the employee’s right to privacy, on the other, by imposing controls and obligations that safeguard the employee’s personal data. It further concluded that infringement of an employee’s data gives rise to criminal liability and administrative liability, in addition to the employee’s right to claim compensation for the material and moral damages sustained as a result thereof. The study recommended the imposition of mandatory training courses for employees whose functions, by their nature, permit them to handle data within the workplace, with a view to ensuring compliance with the controls prescribed by the Personal Data Protection Law.