Essence of the Information Product and its Defects
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59992/IJLRS.2025.v4n3p5Keywords:
Information Product, Computer Program, Artificial Intelligence System, Information Defect, Information Defect ProofAbstract
The research deals with the concept of "information product", especially computer software and artificial intelligence systems, and analyses its technical and legal nature and the producer's responsibility for its defects. It explains that the debate over the classification of software began in the eighties, as legislation and the judiciary differed between considering it as mere software instructions, a stand-alone product, or part of computer hardware. With the development of technology, the need for a more accurate classification of this software increased, especially with the emergence of artificial intelligence systems. The research highlights the challenges of legal adaptation of software in different legislations, as its legal protection varies between intellectual property laws, criminal laws, and judicial rulings. It also discusses the new European directive on liability for defective products, which recognizes software as an independent product, and determines the producer's responsibility for its defects. The research also deals with the concept of information defect compared to traditional defects in physical products, explaining that software may be subject to defects in design, manufacturing (setup), or lack or deficiency in warnings. The research raises fundamental questions about the possibility of applying traditional product liability standards to information products, especially with regard to assigning responsibility when damage occurs due to a fault or defect in the software or artificial intelligence system. In conclusion, the research proposes adopting the concept of "information product", with the development of legal frameworks that accommodate its hybrid nature, and determine the responsibilities of producers and users according to the levels of risk control. It also emphasizes the need to update legislation to keep pace with rapid developments in artificial intelligence, - especially - with regard to liability for unexpected errors and independent decisions of these systems.
References
المراجع العربية:
1. خالد حمدي، حماية برامج المعلومات. دار النهضة العربية، 2003.
2. عدنان سرحان، أحكام البيع في قانون المعاملات المدنية الإماراتي، مكتبة الجامعة، الشارقة، الطبعة الأولى، 2015.
3. عزة محمود أحمد خليل، مشكلات المسئولية المدنية في مواجهة فيروس الحاسب. القاهرة، 1994. ص 351-356.
4. محمد حسن عبد الله (2011) حماية برامج الحاسب بقانون براءة الاختراع في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، مجلة الشريعة والقانون، العدد السابع والأربعون.
5. محمد سامي الشوا. ثورة المعلومات وانعكاساتها على قانون العقوبات. الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب، 2003.
6. نائلة عادل محمد فريد قوره، جرائم الحاسب الاقتصادية، دار النهضة العربية، 2004.
7. هانا فراي، أهلاً بالعالم: أن تكون إنساناً في عصر الخوارزميات، ترجمة: محمد أ. جمال، دار كلمات للنشر والتوزيع، 2021.
8. هدى حامد قشقوش. جرائم الكمبيوتر والجرائم الأخرى في مجال تكنولوجيا المعلومات. المؤتمر السادس للجمعية المصرية للقانون الجنائي. القاهرة 25-28 أكتوبر 1993. دار النهضة العربية. 1993.
المراجع باللغة الإنجليزية:
1. Aaron D. Twerski James A. Henderson Jr, Manufacturers' Liability for Defective Product Designs: The Triumph of Risk-Utility, 74 Brook. L. Rev. (2009).
2. Amy Kraft, Microsoft shuts down AI chatbot after it turned into a Nazi. Microsoft shuts down AI chatbot, Tay, after it turned into a Nazi - CBS News.
3. Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press, 2014.
4. Benjamin Hayward, What’s in a Name? Software, Digital Products, and the Sale of Goods, SYDNEY LAW REVIEW, VOL 38, 2016:pp,441-462.
5. Deimantė Rimkutė, AI AND LIABILITY IN MEDICINE: THE CASE OF ASSISTIVE-DIAGNOSTIC AI, BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS, A Journal of Vytautas Magnus University, VOLUME 16, NUMBER 2 (2023).
6. Gary T. Walker, The Expanding Applicability of Strict Liability Principles: How Is a "Produce Defined?, 22 Tort & Ins. LJ. 1, 2 (19.) .
7. Jeffrey K. Gurney, Article, Sue My Car Not Me: Products Liability and Accidents Involving Autonomous Vehicles, 13 U. ILL. J. L. TECH. & POL'Y 247, 259 (2013).
8. Joseph L. Reutiman, Defective Information: Should Information be a "Product" Subject to Products Liability Claims?, 22 CORNELL J. L. & PUB. POL'Y 181, 195 (2012) .
9. K Alheit, Delictual liability arising from the use of defective software: comparative notes on the positions of parties in English law and South African law, the Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa, JULY 2006, Vol. 39, No. 2 (JULY 2006), pp. 265-308.
10. Kinsey Van, Navigating Artificial Intelligence Through a Products Liability Framework, Western State Law Review, Vol. 51, 2024.p.299-318.
11. L Jean Camp & Serena Syme. (2001) Code as Embedded Speech, Machine, and Service. The Journal of Information, Law and Technology (JILT). July.
12. Joel González Castillo, Products liability in Europe and the United States, Revista Chilena de Derecho, Mayo - Agosto 2012, Vol. 39, No. 2 (Mayo - Agosto 2012), pp. 277-296.
13. Martin Kretschmer. Software as Text and Machine: The Legal Capture of Digital Innovation.http://www.cippm.org.uk/pdfs/JILT%20kretschmer%2011_03.pdf.
14. Miriam C. Buiten, Product liability for defective AI, European Journal of Law and Economics (2024) 57:239–273. Product liability for defective AI | European Journal of Law and Economics.
15. Neil Steinkamp, 2016 Automotive Warranty & Recall Report, STOUT ADVISORY (May 1, 2016), 2016 Automotive Warranty and Recall Report | Stout.
16. Nikos Th. Nikolinakos, Adapting the EU liability regime to artificial intelligence (AI): the European Commission's proposed policy options, Computer and Telecommunications Law Review, C.T.L.R. 2022, 28(3), 66-83.
17. Pamela Samuelson, Others. (1994) A MANIFESTO CONCERNING THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF COMPUTERPROGRAMS. Columbia Law Review. December,. 94 Colum. L. Rev. 2308-2431.
18. Robert D. Klein, A Comparison of the Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability and the Maryland Law of Products Liability, university of Baltimore Law Review, Vol. 3, Issue 2, spring 2001.
19. Robert Plotkin, From Idea to Action: Toward a Unified Theory of Software and the Law. 18th BILETA Conference: Controlling Information in the Online Environment April. QMW, London, 2003.
20. Roy Alan Cohen, Self-Driving Technology and A autonomous Vehicles: A Whole New World for Potential Product Liability Discussion, IADC PROD. LIAB. COMMITTEE NEWSLETTER (Int'l Ass'n Def. Counsel), May 2015, at 332.
21. Shengjun Liu, Yun Zhao & Xinhui Wang, Comparative studies of available relief for defective aircraft and grounding losses under the legal regimes in China and the U.S.: product tort liability or contractual warranty liability?, ASIA PACIFIC LAW REVIEW 2023, VOL. 31, NO. 1, 167–191.
22. Shu Li, and Béatrice Schütte, the proposal for a revised Product Liability Directive: the emperor’s new clothes?, Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law, 2023, Vol. 30(5) 573–596.
23. Steve Dearing, Connected Vehicles: How Soon Will They Hit the Road?, WHARTON SCHOOL (Aug. 1, 2017), Connected Vehicles: How Soon Will They Be Driverless? - PVMI (upenn.edu)
24. SUNGHYO KIM, CRASHED SOFTWARE: ASSESSING PRODUCT LIABILITY FOR SOFTWARE DEFECTS IN AUTOMATED VEHICLES, Duke Law and Technology Review, Vol. 16, pp.300-317.
25. SUNGHYO KIM, CRASHED SOFTWARE: ASSESSING PRODUCT LIABILITY FOR SOFTWARE DEFECTS IN AUTOMATED VEHICLES, Duke Law & Technology Review, 16, 2017-2018, pp. 300-317.
26. Tanya Aplin, Jennifer Davis, Intellectual Property Law, second edition, Oxford University Press, 2013.
المعاجم
قاموس ومعجم المعاني متعدد اللغات والمجالات -قاموس عربي عربي وقاموس عربي انجليزي ثنائي.
المواقع الإلكترونية
- WIPO Lex.
- pdf (europa.eu)
التشريعات
1. القانون رقم (15) لسنة 2020 في شأن حماية المستهلك، الجريدة الرسمية، العدد ستمائة وتسعون (ملحق) السنة الخمسون، 15 نوفمبر 2020.
2. المرسوم بقانون اتحادي إماراتي رقم (31) لسنة 2021 بشأن الجرائم والعقوبات. الجريدة الرسمية، العدد سبعمائة وأثنى عشرة (ملحق)، السنة الخمسون، 26 سبتمبر 2021.
3. المرسوم بقانون اتحادي رقم (34) لسنة 2021 بشأن مكافحة الشائعات والجرائم الإلكترونية الإماراتي، الجريدة الرسمية، العدد سبعمائة وأثنى عشرة (ملحق) السنة الواحدة والخمسون، 26 سبتمبر 2021.
4. نظام مكافحة جرائم المعلوماتية السعودي الصادر بالمرسوم الملكي رقم م/17 بتاريخ 8 / 3 / 1428 الموافق 27 مارس 2003.
5. DIRECTIVE (EU) 2024/2853 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 October 2024 on liability for defective products and repealing Council Directive 85/374/EEC.https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L_202402853.
6. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE of 25 July 1985 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products.
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31985L0374.
7. Computer Misuse Act 1990. Section 17. Computer Misuse Act 1990 (legislation.gov.uk).
8. U.S. Code § 2301.
9. Création Ordonnance n°2016-131 du 10 février 2016.
10. Directive - 85/374 - EN - Product Liability Directive - EUR-Lex (europa.eu)
11. Department of Trade and Industry, ‘Guide to the Consumer Protection Act 1987: Product Liability and Safety Provisions’, 2001. Guide To The Consumer Protection Act 1987: Product Liability and Safety Provisions | PDF | Consumer Protection | Safety.
12. Consumer Rights Act 2015. Consumer Rights Act 2015.
13. Directive (EU) 2024/2853 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2024 on liability for defective products and repealing Council Directive 85/374/EEC (Text with EEA relevance)
14. RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF TORTS: PRODS. LIAB. § 2(c) (AM. LAW INST. 1998).
Criminal Code (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46). Criminal Code (justice.gc.ca).
الأحكام القضائية:
1. نقض مدني مصري: الطعن رقم: 263-لسنة 35 قضائية-تاريخ الجلسة 15/5 / 1969 -مكتب فني 20 – رقم الجزء 2.
2. Giglio v. Conn. Light & Power Co., 429 A.2d 486, 489 (Conn. 1980).
3. Aetna Cas. and Sur. Co. v. Jeppesen Co.642 F.2d 339 (9th Cir. 1981).
4. Salomey v Jeppesen [1983] 707 F 2d 671.
5. Voss v. Black & Decker Mfg. Co., 450 N.E.2d 204, 208-09 (N.Y. 1983).
6. Toby Constructions Products Pty Ltd v Computer Sales Pty Ltd ,1983.
7. MacDonald v. Ortho Pharmaceutical Corp., 1985.
8. Crompton & Knowles Corp., 183 Cal.App.3d 1031, 1042 (1986).
9. Anderson v. Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., 53 Cal.3d 987, 1002 (1991).
10. Winter v. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 938 F.2d 1033 (9th Cir. 1991).
11. R v Whitely [1993] FSR 168 (CA).
12. South Central Bell Telephone Co. v. Barthelemy, Louisiana Supreme Court, 643 So. 2d 1240 (1994).
13. Beta Computers (Europe) Ltd v Computer Sales Pty Ltd 1995.
14. St Albans City and DC v International Computers Ltd [1996]
15. Wright v. Stang Mfg. Co., 54 Cai.App.4th 1218,1235 (1997).
16. Vassallo v. Baxter Healthcare Corp., 696 N.E.2d 909 (1998).
17. Valentine v. Baxter Healthcare Corp., 68 Cal.App.4th 1467, 1482 1999).
18. Nissan Motor Co. v. Nave, 129 Md. App. 90, 118, 740 A.2d 102, 117 (1999).
19. McCabe v. Am. Honda Motor Co., 123 Cal. Rptr. 2d 303, 313 (Cal. Ct. App. 2002).
20. Quintana-Ruiz v. Hyundai Motor Corp., 303 F.3d 62, 77 (1st Cir. 2002)
21. Bookout v. Toyota Motor Corp., No. CJ-2008- 7969, 2013 WL 5596096 (Okl. Dist. Sept. 13, 2013), (No. CJ-2008-7969), 2009 WL 9155882 (Okl. Dist. Sept. 16, 2009).
22. Taylor v. Elliott Turbomachinery Co., Inc., 171 Cal.App.4th 564, 577 (2009).
23. Bookout v. Toyota Motor Corp., No. CJ-2008- 7969, 2013 WL 5596096 (Okl. Dist. Sept. 13, 2013), (No. CJ-2008-7969), 2009 WL 9155882 (Okl. Dist. Sept. 16, 2009).
24. 23-Perez v. VAS S.p.A., 188 Cal.App.4th 758,678 (2010).
25. 24-UsedSoft GmbH v Oracle International Corp.,2012.eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62011CJ0128.
26. 25-Cahenv. Toyota Motor Corp., 147 F. Supp. 3d 955, 958 (N.D. Cal. 2015).
27. 26-Johnson v. U.S. Steel Corp., 240 Cal.App.4th 22, 31 (2015).
28. 27-NZ case of Dixon v , [2016] 1 NZLR 678.
29. Webb v. Special Electric Co., Inc., 63 Cal.4th 167, 181 (2016).
30. Ruggiero v. Yamaha Motor Corp., No. 15-49 (JBS/KMW), (D.N.J. Mar. 31, 2017).
31. Air & Liquid Sys. Corp. v. DeVries, 586 U.S. 446, 451 (2019).
32. JUDGMENT OF THE COURT (Fourth Chamber), 16 September 2021. The Software Incubator (europa.eu).
33. KRONE – Verlag, European Court of Justice (2021, No. C-65/20).
